Understanding Genes
GEN is the "substance of heredity," located on the chromosome. Genes are among others:
- As a separate matter contained in the chromosomes.
- Contains genetic information.
- Able to duplicate themselves in the event of cell division.
A pair of chromosomes is
"homologous" each other,
meaning that the locus containing the corresponding genes, called ALELA. LOCUS
is a site dedicated
to the gene in the chromosome.
Allele DOUBLE (MULTIPLE alleles) is the presence of more than one allele at the same locus.
Recognized two types of chromosomes, namely:
1. Chromosome loss (autosomes).
2. Sex chromosome / chromosomal sex (Gonosom).
Allele DOUBLE (MULTIPLE alleles) is the presence of more than one allele at the same locus.
Recognized two types of chromosomes, namely:
1. Chromosome loss (autosomes).
2. Sex chromosome / chromosomal sex (Gonosom).
THOMAS HUNT
MORGAN
is a geneticist from the United States which found that hereditary factors (genes) are stored in a unique locus in the chromosome. Experiments for this has been done on fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) for the following reasons:
- Quick breed,
- Easily obtained and maintained,
- Quickly becoming an adult (age 10-14 days was de ~ adult),
- The fly females lay eggs a lot,
- Only has 4 pairs of chromosomes, so easily researched.
The reason for occurrence causes factor Evolution - Mutation Genes, Recombination Genes and Environment Foreign - Education History of Evolutionary Biology
Evolution in general can be caused by two factors, namely, among others:
1. In factor / Factor Gene / Genetic Factors
In every living being must have the substance of genes on the chromosome. Changes in genes or genetics on these creatures will result in changes in the nature of these organisms. Changes in chromosomal genes can occur due to:
a. gene mutation
Mutations are changes in the chemical structure of genes that are turuntemurun which can occur spontaneously or not spontaneously by chemical substances, radioactive radiation, viral infection, and so forth.
Definition and
meaning of the definition of gene recombination is the incorporation of
multiple genes as the male parent and female ovum fertilization by sperm that
causes a different arrangement of gene pairs
from its parent. The result is a variant of the birth of new species.
from its parent. The result is a variant of the birth of new species.
2. External
Environmental Factors
in their daily life must be somewhere in the neighborhood where he lived according to habitat and physical conditions kondusi
3. Living organisms are required to be able to adjust or adapt to the surrounding environmental conditions. Living things that make physical changes and the characters are continually to be always adapt to the environment led to the emergence of new variants of species of diverse and varied.
Supplement:
The evolution in living things is already proven to be untrue. If you still find a lesson or to review the evolution of media, it is called propaganda or doctrine of atheists to obfuscate your religion. Evolution is a theory that fails.
in their daily life must be somewhere in the neighborhood where he lived according to habitat and physical conditions kondusi
3. Living organisms are required to be able to adjust or adapt to the surrounding environmental conditions. Living things that make physical changes and the characters are continually to be always adapt to the environment led to the emergence of new variants of species of diverse and varied.
Supplement:
The evolution in living things is already proven to be untrue. If you still find a lesson or to review the evolution of media, it is called propaganda or doctrine of atheists to obfuscate your religion. Evolution is a theory that fails.
a) Main Function Genes
1. Regulate growth and metabolism of individual
2. convey genetic information to subsequent generations
In the days of
Gregor Mendel, genes are often referred to as the deciding factor or element or
determinant
.
Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866 - 1945), a geneticist and embryologist United States, expressed the opinion that the gene is the substance of heredity that is a unity which has the nature of kimi - the following properties:
Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866 - 1945), a geneticist and embryologist United States, expressed the opinion that the gene is the substance of heredity that is a unity which has the nature of kimi - the following properties:
1) gene is
itself a compact particles in the chromosome.
2) Genes contain the genetic information.
3) Genes dapata duplicate itself in the events of mitosis and meiosis; means dapata gene splitting into two exactly the same so that it can deliver genetic information to subsequent cell generations.
4) Each gene occupies a specific place in the chromosomes, which occupy specific locations of genes in a chromosome is called gene locus.
2) Genes contain the genetic information.
3) Genes dapata duplicate itself in the events of mitosis and meiosis; means dapata gene splitting into two exactly the same so that it can deliver genetic information to subsequent cell generations.
4) Each gene occupies a specific place in the chromosomes, which occupy specific locations of genes in a chromosome is called gene locus.
A pair of homologous chromosomes are the others, it means that the chromosome locus hpmplog also contained the gene - a gene that corresponds. Gene - a gene that corresponds to the corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes are called alleles (gene pairs). So the gene is the smallest unit of hereditary material properties (the substance of heredity) which is about 40-50 milimikron.
b) According to Mendelian Heredity
Heredity means of inheritance - genetic characteristics from parents to their children. The study of heredity is called genetics.
Johan Gregor Mendel, proving the truth of his research with membastarkan plants - plants that have different properties. The selected plants are garden pea (Pisum sativum), because it has advantages - advantages as follows:
1. Easily perform cross-pollination
2. easily obtainable
3. Easy living or preserved
4. Sooner or short-lived fruiting
5. Lination can
6. There are
types - the type that has properties - and strikingly different properties.
On the basis of Mendel's theory, if we bastarkan type fluted pure mango fruit properties yag great but taste sour, with another mango type and nature of the fluted pure fruits are small but sweet, will we get the type of hybrid mangoes (the bastardization) with properties of a large fruit and taste sweet, provided that: the nature of the dominant of the minor nature, and nature of the dominant sweet to sour nature.
Genotype is the trait that does not seem to be determined by a pair of genes or arrangement of genes in determining individual traits appear. Properties visible from the outside or the nature of the offspring can be called a phenotype we observe.
According to Stern (1930), genotype and environmental factors may influence the phenotype.
Thus two of the same genotype may show different phenotypes for the two genotypes when the environment is different.
If the genotype of an individual consists of pairs of alleles are not equal, is called heterozygous genotype (hetero = other, zygote = the union of male gametes and female gametes occurs through cleavage). Whereas if the genotype composed of the same pair of alleles is called homozygous.
It should be understood that the letters - the letters BB, bb, RR, rr and so we call genootipe and its phenotype is a collective agreement (one conversion).
Several other conventions that need to be known here, among others:
a. The nature of the gene - a gene dominant (that is strong that cover the influence of genes alelnya) symbolized uppercase while the covered gene (called recessive alelnya0 and symbolized with the same letter with a dominant gene, but degan lowercase.
example:
- Large (B or R) dominant to minor (b or r) can be written with symbols as follows: B> b or R> r.
On the basis of Mendel's theory, if we bastarkan type fluted pure mango fruit properties yag great but taste sour, with another mango type and nature of the fluted pure fruits are small but sweet, will we get the type of hybrid mangoes (the bastardization) with properties of a large fruit and taste sweet, provided that: the nature of the dominant of the minor nature, and nature of the dominant sweet to sour nature.
Genotype is the trait that does not seem to be determined by a pair of genes or arrangement of genes in determining individual traits appear. Properties visible from the outside or the nature of the offspring can be called a phenotype we observe.
According to Stern (1930), genotype and environmental factors may influence the phenotype.
Thus two of the same genotype may show different phenotypes for the two genotypes when the environment is different.
If the genotype of an individual consists of pairs of alleles are not equal, is called heterozygous genotype (hetero = other, zygote = the union of male gametes and female gametes occurs through cleavage). Whereas if the genotype composed of the same pair of alleles is called homozygous.
It should be understood that the letters - the letters BB, bb, RR, rr and so we call genootipe and its phenotype is a collective agreement (one conversion).
Several other conventions that need to be known here, among others:
a. The nature of the gene - a gene dominant (that is strong that cover the influence of genes alelnya) symbolized uppercase while the covered gene (called recessive alelnya0 and symbolized with the same letter with a dominant gene, but degan lowercase.
example:
- Large (B or R) dominant to minor (b or r) can be written with symbols as follows: B> b or R> r.
- Blue (M or B)
is dominant over white (m or b) can be written with symbols as follows: M> m
or B> b
b. Writing of individual heterozygous genotypes as follows: The second letter was written with the symbol alelnya dominant trait (uppercase) in front with a dominant trait (uppercase) in front and a recessive trait (lowercase) in the back.
Example:
Bb not bB
Rr instead of RR
Dominant properties of two different genotypes can have the same phenotype.
Example:
RR, irritable phenotype
Rr, phenotype also grumpy
However, for the patient always rr genotype, phenotype trait so resesifenya always homozygous genotype.
1. Monohybrid
Is a cross crossbreeding with a different nature.
Consider the diagram monohybrid between high-pea stems with short stem pea following:
picture: monohibrid.jpg
Description:
Q: is the symbol for the genes that determine height rod
Q: is the symbol for the gene that determines the short rod
By creating a table like this, can we know that the properties of stem height (T) dominant over nature.
2. Dihybrid
Is a cross (crossbreeding) with two different properties. To prove the second law of Mendel's famous with the principle of independently assorting, Mendel experimented with crossbreeding plants Pisum sativum fluted pure with respect to two different properties, namely the round yellow seeds with pure wrinkled seed, green color. Gene B (round) dominant to b (wrinkled), and K (yellow) dominant over k (green). For more details see the following table schema:
Schematic cross
P1: BBKK> <bbkk
(Round, yellow) (wrinkled, green)
Gametes: BK bk
F1: BbKk (round seed phenotype, berendosperma yellow)
F1 gametes: BK, Bk, bk and bk
F1> <F1
P2: BbKk BbKk
F2:
BK Bk bk bk
BBKK BK (1) BBKk (2) BbKk (3) BbKk (4)
Bk BBKk (5) BBkk (6) BbKk (7) Bbkk (8)
BK BbKK (9) BbKk (10) bbKK (11) bbKk (12)
BbKk bk (13) Bbkk (14) Bbkk (15) bbkk (16)
Phenotype in the F2:
a. Round, yellow: 1,2,3,4,5,7,9,10,13 b. Round, hujau: 6,8,14
c. Wrinkled yellow: 11, 12, 15
d. Wrinkled, green: 16
Genotype Ratio:
BBKK: BBKk: BbKK: BbKk: BBkk: Bbkk: bbKK: bbKk: bbkk
(9 genotypes)
A: 2: 2: 4: 1: 2: 1: 2: 1
The ratio of phenotypes:
Round yellow: green round: wrinkled yellow: wrinkled green
(4 genotype)
9: 3: 3: 1
In making that calculation assumes that Mendelian genes - genes carriers of the two properties were separated independently of each other during the formation of gametes. Mendel Law II is also called GROUPING OF LAW IN INDEPENDENT GEN. So the dihybrid BbKk, for example
B genes clustered with K ------ gametes BK
B genes clustered with k Bk ------ gametes
B gene clustered with K ----- BK gametes
B gene clustered with k ----- gametes bk
Numbers - numbers monohybrid F2 phenotype ratio = 3: 1, whereas the phenotype of the F2 dihybrid ratio = 9: 3: 3: 1, but in reality the ratio obtained is not exactly the same as comparative figures above, but close ratio 3: 1 or 9; 3: 3: 1
For example:
In mono-hybrid ratio is obtained
Trunk height: short trunk
787: 277
2.84: 1
3: 1
Dihybrid ratio is obtained
Round yellow = 315 plants
Round green = 101 plants
Wrinkled yellow = 108 plants
Wrinkled green = 32 plants
Figures - these figures show a ratio close to 9; 3: 3: 1
In hybridized intermediates (dominance is not full), no phenotype F1 phenotype is similar to one parent but has properties between the two dominant genes and recessive genes, as shown in the schematic below.
If the principle of Mendel's make it four principles can be summarized as follows:
1) The principle of heredity, meyatakan that the inheritance of properties - properties of the organism is controlled by factors decreased (genes).
2) The principle of segregation-free: the formation of gametes, pairs of genes segregate independently so that each gamete have one pair of genes from the gene (allele) earlier.
3) The principle of free pairs: at conception (fertilization), gene - a gene of male gamete and gene - gene from the female gamete will pair freely.
4) The principle of dominance is full or not full (intermediate): phenotype (influence) the dominant gene will be seen to cover the influence of recessive genes. While on the principle of dominance is not full, the gene in individuals heterozygous phenotype is between the effects of both alleles of genes that put them together.
3 Marriage reciprocal
Principle - the principle of Mendel mentioned above easily proven when the marriage was held (crossing) reciprocal.
Reciprocal crosses are crossing the male gametes and female gametes are exchanged so as to produce the same offspring
4. Backcross and Testcross
Backcross F1 is the marriage between individuals with one parent (the parent dominant and recessive). The goal is to find genotype backcross parent. Consider the following mating scheme:
Testcross is the marriage of one of F1 with the recessive parent. Testcross also called marital testing (test cross) because it aims to determine whether an individual's genotype homozygous (pure fluted) or heterozygous. If the results of the comparison showed phenotypic testcross progeny segregate 1: 1, it can be concluded that the tested individual is not a pure line, meaning heterozygous. Whereas if the results of 100% berfenotipe same testcross means homozygous.
Heredity in humans
Heredity in humans learn about the kinds of inheritance / abnormalities in humans. The decline in human nature can be divided into two, namely the nature of the body adrift koromosom (autosomal), and sex-linked trait (gonosomal). Autosomal trait manifestations can appear in both boys and girls. While the nature of the gonosomal manifestations are influenced by gender, can only appear in boys only or girls only.
The nature / Disability Declining Autosomal
Some properties / defects decreases the body adrift on chromosomes (autosomes) are as follows.
1. Albinism
Albinism is a defect decreases when a person does not have a tyrosine that is converted into melanin pigment. Consequently eyebrows, hair, and skin looks white (albino), and eyes sensitive to light. The gene causes albinism is recessive, whereas the normal allele is dominant to control nature. An albino child born of the couple who each carry the albino gene (carrier)
Q: Aa x Aa
F: AA: normal
2Aa: normal (carrier)
aa: albino
Albinism is a defect decreases when a person does not have a tyrosine that is converted into melanin pigment. Consequently eyebrows, hair, and skin looks white (albino), and eyes sensitive to light. The gene causes albinism is recessive, whereas the normal allele is dominant to control nature. An albino child born of the couple who each carry the albino gene (carrier)
Q: Aa x Aa
F: AA: normal
2Aa: normal (carrier)
aa: albino
2. Idiot / Imbisil
Decreased disability was caused because someone does not have the enzyme that converts phenylalanine to tyrosine. Resulting in accumulation of phenylalanine in the blood and converted into acid fenilpiruvat. High levels of fenilpiruvat inhibit the development and brain function. The disorder is often called phenilketouria (PKU) because of the large content fenilpiruvat residues contained in urine.
Children are an idiot / imbisil characterized as follows:
• Low IQ
• slow motion
• often lack hair pigment
• residues found in the urine fenilpiruvat
A child born idiot of a husband and wife who both carry the recessive gene.
Q: Ii x Ii
F: II: normal
2Ii: normal (carrier)
ii: idiot
F: II: normal
2Ii: normal (carrier)
ii: idiot
3. Thallasemia
Thallasemia is a disorder where a person's red blood
cells are irregularly shaped, Hb
slightly so that patients often lack of oxygen (hypoxemia).
These defects are caused by a dominant gene.
There are two types of thallasemia, namely thallasemia major (ThTh) and thallasemia minor (Thth). Red blood cells of all patients with major thallasemia irregularly shaped and generally lethal. Whereas in patients with minor thallasemia partly shaped red blood cells were irregular. Patients can survive with regular transfusions.
Patients with major thallasemia born of marriages between people with minor thallasemia.
Q: Thth x Thth
There are two types of thallasemia, namely thallasemia major (ThTh) and thallasemia minor (Thth). Red blood cells of all patients with major thallasemia irregularly shaped and generally lethal. Whereas in patients with minor thallasemia partly shaped red blood cells were irregular. Patients can survive with regular transfusions.
Patients with major thallasemia born of marriages between people with minor thallasemia.
Q: Thth x Thth
F: ThTh: thallasemia major
2Thth: thallasemia minor
thth: normal
2Thth: thallasemia minor
thth: normal
4. blood group
There are a lot of blood group classification, including the
ABO group, Rh, and MN. The first two have medical value, while the latter is
not. All three groups were
found by K. Landsteiner.
ABO Group
This group divides into four blood types, namely A, B, AB, and O, based on the presence of certain types of antigens on blood cells called isoaglutinogen. Genotif arrangement and possible gametes formed can be seen in the following table.
ABO Group
This group divides into four blood types, namely A, B, AB, and O, based on the presence of certain types of antigens on blood cells called isoaglutinogen. Genotif arrangement and possible gametes formed can be seen in the following table.
ABO blood group
is controlled by a double alela IA, IB, and IO. IA and IB codominant, and both
are dominant to the IO.
Example: A marriage between the male groups with female heterozygous B heterozygotes.
Q: IAIO x IBIO
G: IA, IB IO, IO
F: IAIB: class AB
IAIO: group A
IBIO: group B
IOIO: group O
Rhesus Group
This group is called by the name of the Indian monkey, Macacus rhesus, which was often used to test blood.
This blood group is Rhesus two Rh + and -. Genotif arrangement and possible gametes can be seen in the following table.
Example: A marriage between the male groups with female heterozygous B heterozygotes.
Q: IAIO x IBIO
G: IA, IB IO, IO
F: IAIB: class AB
IAIO: group A
IBIO: group B
IOIO: group O
Rhesus Group
This group is called by the name of the Indian monkey, Macacus rhesus, which was often used to test blood.
This blood group is Rhesus two Rh + and -. Genotif arrangement and possible gametes can be seen in the following table.
Rhesus groups was highly significant in the marriage. When a man married a woman Rhesus Rhesus + -, the possibility of children suffering from erythroblastosis fetalis (infant jaundice).
Example: marriage between a man with a woman's Rh + Rh -
Q: male x female Rhesus Rhesus + -
RhRh rhrh
Example: marriage between a man with a woman's Rh + Rh -
Q: male x female Rhesus Rhesus + -
RhRh rhrh
G: Rh-Rh
F: Rhrh Rh + (erythroblastosis fetalis)
F: Rhrh Rh + (erythroblastosis fetalis)
Cases of erythroblastosis: notice that the child group Rh + erythrocytes coagulated by maternal antibodies (white) that Type Rh-when in the womb
Type MN
This group has no medical value because the only determinant antigen groups found in erythrocytes and found no antibodies in the plasma.
This group of genes controlled by the IM and IN codominant to each other. Genotif arrangement and possible gametes can be seen in the following table.
Type MN
This group has no medical value because the only determinant antigen groups found in erythrocytes and found no antibodies in the plasma.
This group of genes controlled by the IM and IN codominant to each other. Genotif arrangement and possible gametes can be seen in the following table.
Example:
marriage between a man group M (homozygous) with N type female (homozygous)
Q: male group M x N type female
IMIM inin
G: IM IN
F: IMIN: type MN
Q: male group M x N type female
IMIM inin
G: IM IN
F: IMIN: type MN
The nature / Disability Declining Gonosomal
Inherited trait sex-linked (gonosom) divided into two, namely X-linked and Y-linked X-linked genes that can be derived in girls and boys, but the phenotypes that appear depend on the composition genotifnya. While the Y-linked genes are inherited only in boys.
1. Defects decreases the X-linked
Two examples of defects decreases the X-linked is hemofili and butawarna.
a. Hemofili
Hemofili is a difficult disorder where a person's blood to clot. The disease is caused by a recessive gene h, whereas the normal behavior is controlled by the gene H. A normal female has two H gene on each chromosome X. If there is one X chromosome gene h, these women including normal women but bring hemofili properties (carrier). If the second X chromosome gene contained the woman's suffering hemofili h and generally lethal. Men suffering from hemofili when on his X chromosome genes are h, and normal if there is a gene of H. A young man can be born from mothers hemofili carrier
Queen Victoria
of the United Kingdom
Historically, the first female carrier hemofili was Queen Victoria. The first called for genealogy on the Queen Vicotria unknown. Prince Andrew inherited this gene from his mother and died in an accident with an injury that is not how severe.
Q: Normal male x female carrier
XHY XHXh
G: XH, XH Y, Xh
F: XHXH: XHY normal women: a normal guy
XHXh: normal female carrier Xhy: men hemofili
Historically, the first female carrier hemofili was Queen Victoria. The first called for genealogy on the Queen Vicotria unknown. Prince Andrew inherited this gene from his mother and died in an accident with an injury that is not how severe.
Q: Normal male x female carrier
XHY XHXh
G: XH, XH Y, Xh
F: XHXH: XHY normal women: a normal guy
XHXh: normal female carrier Xhy: men hemofili
2.colorblind
Figure how much?
What Figure out?
colorblind a decreased defect where one can not distinguish colors. Generally can not distinguish the colors red and green (dikromatis). While the total colorblind people can not see color. The disorder is also caused by a recessive gene c, while the normal nature of the dominant gene controlled C.
Children can be born color blind woman from the man who married a woman butawarna carrier.
2. Defects decreases the Y-linked
Genes that are adrift on the Y chromosome is inherited only the boys, therefore often referred to as gene holandrik.
Examples of defects which is Y-linked: hypertrichosis, hystrixgraviour, and webbedtoes. All three are caused by recessive genes.
Hypertrichosis
colorblind a decreased defect where one can not distinguish colors. Generally can not distinguish the colors red and green (dikromatis). While the total colorblind people can not see color. The disorder is also caused by a recessive gene c, while the normal nature of the dominant gene controlled C.
Children can be born color blind woman from the man who married a woman butawarna carrier.
2. Defects decreases the Y-linked
Genes that are adrift on the Y chromosome is inherited only the boys, therefore often referred to as gene holandrik.
Examples of defects which is Y-linked: hypertrichosis, hystrixgraviour, and webbedtoes. All three are caused by recessive genes.
Hypertrichosis
A man with hypertrichosis
Ht gene found on chromosome Y causes the hair growing on the edge of the ear leaf. Such abnormalities are often found on the men in Pakistan.
Q: XYht x XX
F: XYht: male hypertrichosis
XYht: male hypertrichosis
Hystrixgraviour
The disorder is caused by the hg gene that causes the growth of long hair and stiff throughout the body (porcupine feather disease). Normal properties of Hg-controlled genes.
Webbedtoes
Is a disorder where the lining of the fingers, especially the feet grow like frog legs. The reason is the wt gene, whereas the normal properties of genes controlled Wt.
Ht gene found on chromosome Y causes the hair growing on the edge of the ear leaf. Such abnormalities are often found on the men in Pakistan.
Q: XYht x XX
F: XYht: male hypertrichosis
XYht: male hypertrichosis
Hystrixgraviour
The disorder is caused by the hg gene that causes the growth of long hair and stiff throughout the body (porcupine feather disease). Normal properties of Hg-controlled genes.
Webbedtoes
Is a disorder where the lining of the fingers, especially the feet grow like frog legs. The reason is the wt gene, whereas the normal properties of genes controlled Wt.
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